1. Economic Indicators and the Business Cycle

1.1 Limitations of GDP

1.1.1 Informal economies

1.1.2 What GDP measures

1.2 Unemployment

1.2.1 Types of unemployment

1.2.2 Natural rate of unemployment

1.2.3 Costs of unemployment

1.3 Inflation and Price Indices

1.3.1 CPI

1.3.2 PPI

1.3.3 Real vs. nominal values

1.4 Costs of Inflation

1.4.1 Redistribution effects

1.4.2 Menu costs

1.4.3 Hyperinflation

1.5 Business Cycles

1.5.1 Phases of business cycles

1.5.2 Economic indicators

1.6 Circular Flow Model

1.6.1 Flows of goods and services

1.6.2 Role of government

1.6.3 Leakages and injections

1.7 GDP

1.7.1 Expenditure approach

1.7.2 Income approach

1.7.3 Nominal vs. Real GDP

2. Long-Run Consequences of Stabilization Policies

2.1 Short-Run and Long-Run Effects of Policies

2.1.1 Impact on price stability

2.1.2 Trade-offs between inflation and unemployment

2.2 The Phillips Curve

2.2.1 Short-run relationship

2.2.2 Long-run relationship

2.3 Money Growth and Inflation

2.3.1 Quantity theory of money

2.3.2 Hyperinflation causes

2.4 Government Deficits and National Debt

2.4.1 Fiscal deficits

2.4.2 Debt-to-GDP ratio

2.5 Crowding Out

2.5.1 Private investment impact

2.5.2 Long-term growth

2.6 Economic Growth

2.6.1 Determinants of growth

2.6.2 Role of human capital

2.7 Public Policy and Growth

2.7.1 Trade-offs in public policy

2.7.2 Short-term vs. long-term growth

3. National Income and Price Determination

3.1 Aggregate Demand (AD)

3.1.1 Components of AD

3.1.2 Determinants of AD

3.1.3 Multiplier effects

3.2 Multipliers

3.2.1 Spending multiplier

3.2.2 Tax multiplier

3.2.3 Applications to fiscal policy

3.3 Short-Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS)

3.3.1 Determinants of SRAS

3.3.2 Sticky wages

3.3.3 Shifts in SRAS

3.4 Long-Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS)

3.4.1 Full employment output

3.4.2 Economic growth

3.5 Equilibrium in the AD-AS Model

3.5.1 Price levels and real GDP

3.5.2 Short-run equilibrium

3.6 Fiscal Policy

3.6.1 Expansionary fiscal policy

3.6.2 Contractionary fiscal policy

3.6.3 Crowding out

3.7 Automatic Stabilizers

3.7.1 Tax systems

3.7.2 Transfer payments

4. Open Economy—International Trade and Finance

4.1 Balance of Payments

4.1.1 Current account

4.1.2 Capital account

4.2 Exchange Rates

4.2.1 Fixed vs. floating rates

4.2.2 Determinants of exchange rates

4.3 The Foreign Exchange Market

4.3.1 Supply and demand for currencies

4.3.2 Shifts in exchange rates

4.4 Net Exports and Aggregate Demand

4.4.1 Currency changes on trade

4.4.2 Export-led growth

4.5 Capital Flows and Real Interest Rates

4.5.1 Relationship to foreign investment

4.5.2 Global capital flows

5. Basic Economic Concepts

5.1 Scarcity and Economic Resources

5.1.1 Definition of scarcity

5.1.2 Trade-offs and choices

5.1.3 Economic systems

5.2 Opportunity Cost and PPC

5.2.1 PPC as a model

5.2.2 Law of increasing opportunity costs

5.2.3 Shifts in PPC

5.3 Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade

5.3.1 Specialization

5.3.2 Comparative vs. absolute advantage

5.4 Demand

5.4.1 Law of demand

5.4.2 Determinants of demand

5.4.3 Elasticity of demand

5.5 Supply

5.5.1 Law of supply

5.5.2 Determinants of supply

5.5.3 Elasticity of supply

5.6 Market Equilibrium

5.6.1 Equilibrium price

5.6.2 Government price controls

6. Financial Sector

6.1 Definition and Functions of Money

6.1.1 Characteristics of money

6.1.2 Types of money

6.2 Interest Rates

6.2.1 Nominal vs. real rates

6.2.2 Relationship to inflation

6.3 The Money Market

6.3.1 Demand for money

6.3.2 Supply of money

6.3.3 Interest rates

6.4 Banking System and Money Creation

6.4.1 Fractional reserve banking

6.4.2 Money multiplier

6.5 Monetary Policy

6.5.1 Tools of monetary policy

6.5.2 Expansionary policy

6.5.3 Contractionary policy

6.6 Loanable Funds Market

6.6.1 Savings and investment

6.6.2 Government borrowing

Supply and demand for currencies

Topic 2/3

Revision Notes
Flashcards
Past Paper Analysis
Questions
Videos

Your Flashcards are Ready!

15 Flashcards in this deck.

Supply and Demand for Currencies

Introduction

Understanding the supply and demand for currencies is pivotal in comprehending how exchange rates are determined within the foreign exchange market. This topic is essential for students preparing for the College Board AP Macroeconomics exam, as it elucidates the mechanisms that govern international trade and finance in an open economy.

Key Concepts

Definition of Currency Supply and Demand

In the foreign exchange market, the supply of a currency refers to the total amount of that currency available for exchange, while the demand for a currency represents the desire of individuals, businesses, and governments to purchase it. The interaction between currency supply and demand determines the exchange rate, which is the price of one currency in terms of another.

Factors Affecting Currency Supply

Several factors influence the supply of a currency in the foreign exchange market:

Export Levels: Higher exports increase the supply of a country’s currency as foreign buyers convert their currency to pay for the exported goods.
Foreign Investment: When foreign investors purchase assets in a country, they supply the domestic currency to the foreign exchange market.
Government Intervention: Central banks may engage in open market operations to increase or decrease the currency supply.
Speculation: Expectations of future exchange rate movements can lead to increased supply if traders believe the currency will depreciate.

Factors Affecting Currency Demand

The demand for a currency is influenced by various factors, including:

Import Levels: Higher imports require more domestic currency to purchase foreign goods, increasing demand for foreign currencies and, consequently, affecting the domestic currency’s demand.
Interest Rates: Higher interest rates offer better returns on investments denominated in that currency, increasing its demand.
Economic Stability: Economies perceived as stable attract more foreign investment, boosting the demand for their currencies.
Speculation: Traders’ expectations about future currency appreciation can increase current demand.

Determining Exchange Rates

Exchange rates are determined by the equilibrium point where the supply and demand curves intersect. If the demand for a currency increases while supply remains constant, the currency appreciates. Conversely, if supply increases while demand remains constant, the currency depreciates.

Mathematically, the equilibrium is found where: $$ \text{Quantity of Currency Supplied} = \text{Quantity of Currency Demanded} $$

The Role of the Foreign Exchange Market

The foreign exchange (Forex) market is a global decentralized market where currencies are traded. It facilitates international trade and investment by providing a platform for currency conversion. The Forex market operates 24 hours a day, five days a week, allowing for continuous trading and the adjustment of exchange rates in response to global economic events.

Balance of Payments

The balance of payments (BOP) accounts for all financial transactions made between residents of a country and the rest of the world. It comprises two main components:

Current Account: Includes trade balance, services, income, and current transfers.
Capital and Financial Account: Captures investments, loans, and banking capital flows.

A surplus in the BOP typically leads to an appreciation of the domestic currency, while a deficit may result in depreciation.

Impact of Government Policies

Governments and central banks can influence currency supply and demand through various policies:

Monetary Policy: Adjusting interest rates affects investment flows and currency demand.
Fiscal Policy: Government spending and taxation can impact economic growth and currency strength.
Exchange Rate Policy: Fixed or pegged exchange rates require government intervention to maintain the currency value.

Exchange Rate Regimes

Countries operate under different exchange rate regimes, which dictate how exchange rates are determined:

Floating Exchange Rate: Determined by market forces without direct government intervention.
Fixed Exchange Rate: Set and maintained by the government at a specific value relative to another currency.
Managed Float: A hybrid system where the currency predominantly floats but the government intervenes to prevent excessive fluctuations.

Equilibrium in the Currency Market

Market equilibrium occurs when the quantity of a currency supplied equals the quantity demanded at the prevailing exchange rate. At this point:

No Excess Supply: There is no surplus of the currency in the market.
No Excess Demand: There is no shortage, and all demand is satisfied.

Equilibrium ensures stability in the exchange rate unless influenced by external factors causing shifts in supply or demand curves.

Examples and Case Studies

To illustrate, consider the appreciation of the US dollar during periods of high interest rates. When the Federal Reserve increases interest rates, foreign investors seek higher returns, thereby increasing the demand for USD to invest in US securities. This demand shift causes the USD to appreciate relative to other currencies.

Conversely, if a country experiences political instability, foreign investors may withdraw their investments, increasing the supply of its currency in the Forex market. This excess supply can lead to depreciation of the currency.

Comparison Table

Aspect	Currency Supply	Currency Demand
Definition	Total amount of a currency available for exchange.	Desire to purchase a currency for transactions and investments.
Primary Influences	Exports, foreign investment, government policies, speculation.	Imports, interest rates, economic stability, speculation.
Impact on Exchange Rate	Increased supply can lead to depreciation.	Increased demand can lead to appreciation.
Examples	Foreign investors selling domestic currency to invest abroad.	Foreign companies buying domestic goods requiring local currency.
Government Intervention	Central banks may sell or buy currency to control supply.	Central banks may adjust interest rates to influence demand.

Summary and Key Takeaways

Exchange rates are determined by the interplay of currency supply and demand in the Forex market.
Factors such as exports, imports, interest rates, and government policies significantly influence currency supply and demand.
Understanding exchange rate regimes helps in analyzing how different countries manage their currencies.
Market equilibrium ensures stability in exchange rates unless disrupted by external economic factors.

Examiner Tip

Tips

Use Mnemonics: Remember "SODA" - Supply, Output (Exports), Demand, Assets (Foreign Investment) to recall key factors affecting currency supply and demand.
Practice Graphs: Regularly sketch supply and demand curves to visualize how different factors shift the curves and impact exchange rates.
Stay Updated: Keep abreast of current events related to international trade and monetary policies to apply real-world examples in your exam answers.

Did You Know

The Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 established fixed exchange rates, with the US dollar linked to gold, fundamentally shaping post-war international finance.
Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin have introduced a new dimension to currency supply and demand, challenging traditional Forex markets.
In some cases, countries engage in "currency wars" by deliberately devaluing their currency to boost exports and gain a trade advantage.

Common Mistakes

Confusing Supply and Demand Shifts: Students often mistake a shift in supply for a shift in demand. Remember, supply pertains to how much currency is available, while demand relates to desire to purchase it.
Ignoring Government Intervention: Overlooking the role of central banks in influencing currency supply and demand can lead to incomplete analyses.
Misapplying Equilibrium Concepts: Assuming that equilibrium always leads to equal exchange rates without considering external shocks can result in incorrect conclusions.

FAQ

What is the primary determinant of exchange rates?

Exchange rates are primarily determined by the supply and demand for currencies in the foreign exchange market.

How do interest rates affect currency demand?

Higher interest rates offer better returns on investments denominated in that currency, increasing its demand as investors seek higher yields.

What role does the balance of payments play in currency valuation?

A surplus in the balance of payments generally leads to currency appreciation, while a deficit can cause depreciation.

Can government intervention stabilize exchange rates?

Yes, governments and central banks can intervene by buying or selling their currency to influence its supply and demand, thereby stabilizing exchange rates.

What is the difference between a floating and fixed exchange rate?

A floating exchange rate is determined by market forces without direct government intervention, while a fixed exchange rate is set and maintained by the government at a specific value relative to another currency.

How does speculation influence currency supply and demand?

Speculators buying a currency anticipate its value will rise, increasing demand, whereas selling anticipates a fall, increasing supply. These actions can significantly impact exchange rates.